IV. INFLUENCE OF ST. THOMAS
A. Influence on Sanctity
The great Scholastics were holy as well as learned men. Alexander of Hales, St.
Albertus Magnus, St. Thomas, and St. Bonaventure prove that learning does not
necessarily dry up devotion. The angelic Thomas and the seraphic Bonaventure
represent the highest types of Christian scholarship, combining eminent learning
with heroic sanctity. Cardinal Bessarion called St. Thomas "the most saintly of
learned men and the most learned of saints". His works breathe the spirit of Cod,
a tender and enlightened piety, built on a solid foundation, viz. the knowledge of
God, of Christ, of man. The "Summa theologica" may he made a manual of piety
as well as a text-book for the study of theology (Cf. Drane, op. cit., p. 446). St.
Francis de Sales, St. Philip Neri, St. Charles Borromeo, St. Vincent Ferrer, St.
Pius V, St. Antoninus constantly studied St. Thomas. Nothing could be more
inspiring than his treatises on Christ, in His sacred Person, in His life and
sufferings. His treatise on the sacraments, especially on penance and the
Eucharist, would melt even hardened hearts. He takes pains to explain the
various ceremonies of the Mass ("De ritu Eucharistiae" in "Sum. theol.", III, Q.
lxxxiii, and no writer has explained more clearly than St. Thomas the effects
produced in the souls of men by this heavenly Bread (ibid., Q. lxxix). The
principles recently urged, in regard to frequent Communion, by Pius X ("Sacra
Trid. Synodus", 1905) are found in St. Thomas (Q. lxxix, a. 8, Q. lxxx, a. 10),
although he is not so explicit on this point as he is on the Communion of
children. In the Decree "Quam Singulari" (1910) the pope cites St. Thomas, who
teaches that, when children begin to have some use of reason, so that they can
conceive some devotion to the Blessed Sacrament, they may be allowed to
communicate (Q. lxxx, a. 9, ad 3um). The spiritual and devotional aspects of St.
Thomas's theology have been pointed out by Father Contenson, O.P., in his
"Theologia mentis et cordis". They are more fully explained by Father
Vallgornera, O.P., in his "Theologia Mystica D. Thomae", wherein the author
leads the soul to God through the purgative, illuminative, and unitive ways. The
Encyclical Letter of Leo XIII on the Holy Spirit is drawn largely from St. Thomas,
and those who have studied the "Prima Secundae" and the "Secunda Secundae"
know how admirably the saint explains the gifts and fruits of the Holy Ghost, as
well as the Beatitudes, and their relations to the different virtues Nearly all good
spiritual writers seek in St. Thomas definitions of the virtues which they
recommend.
B. Influence on Intellectual Life
Since the days of Aristotle, probably no one man has exercised such a powerful
influence on the thinking world as did St. Thomas. His authority was very great
during his lifetime. The popes, the universities, the studia of his order were
anxious to profit by his learning and prudence. Several of his important works
were written at the request of others, and his opinion was sought by all classes.
On several occasions the doctors of Paris referred their disputes to him and
gratefully abided by his decision (Vaughan, op. cit., II, 1 p. 544). His principles,
made known by his writings, have continued to influence men even to this day.
This subject cannot be considered in all its aspects, nor is that necessary. His
influence on matters purely philosophical is fully explained in histories of
philosophy. (Theologians who followed St. Thomas will be mentioned in
THOMISM. See also ORDER OF PREACHERS - II, A, 2, d) His paramount
importance and influence may be explained by considering him as the Christian
Aristotle, combining in his person the best that the world has known in
philosophy and theology. It is in this light that he is proposed as a model by Leo
XIII in the famous Encyclical "Aeterni Patris". The work of his life may be
summed up in two propositions: he established the true relations between faith
and reason; he systematized theology.
(1) Faith and Reason
The principles of St. Thomas on the relations between faith and reason were
solemnly proclaimed in the Vatican Council. The second, third, and fourth
chapters of the Constitution "Dei Filius" read like pages taken from the works of
the Angelic Doctor. First, reason alone is no sufficient to guide men: they need
Revelation; we must carefully distinguish the truths known by reason from higher
truths (mysteries) known by Revelation. Secondly, reason and Revelation, though
distinct, are not opposed to each other. Thirdly, faith preserves reason from error;
reason should do service in the cause of faith. Fourthly, this service is rendered
in three ways:
reason should prepare the minds of men to receive the Faith by proving
the truths which faith presupposes (praeambula fidei);
reason should explain and develop the truths of Faith and should propose
them in scientific form;
reason should defend the truths revealed by Almighty God.
This is a development of St. Augustine's famous saying (De Trin., XIV, c. i), that
the right use of reason is "that by which the most wholesome faith is begotten . .
. is nourished, defended, and made strong" These principles are proposed by St.
Thomas in many places, especially in the following: "In Boethium, d a Trin.
Proem.", Q. ii, a. 1; "Sum. cont. gent.", I, cc I iii-ix; "Summa", I, Q. i, aa. 1, 5, 8;
Q. xxxii, a. 1; Q i lxxxiv, a. 5. St. Thomas's services to the Faith are thus
summed up by Leo XIII in the Encyclical "Aeterni Patris": "He won this title of
distinction for himself: that singlehanded he victoriously combated the errors of
former times, and supplied invincible arms to put to rout those which might in
after times spring up. Again, clearly distinguishing, as is fitting, reason and faith,
he both preserved and had regard for the rights of each; so much so, indeed, that
reason, borne on the wings of Thomas, can scarcely rise higher, while faith could
scarcely expect more or stronger aids from reason than those which she has
already obtained through Thomas." St. Thomas did not combat imaginary foes;
he attacked living adversaries. The works of Aristotle had been introduced into
France in faulty translations and with the misleading commentaries of Jewish and
Moorish philosophers. This gave rise to a flood of errors which so alarmed the
authorities that the reading of Aristotle's Physics and Metaphysics was forbidden
by Robert de Courçon in 1210, the decree being moderated by Gregory IX in
1231. There crept into the University of Paris an insidious spirit of irreverence and
Rationalism, represented especially by Abelard and Raymond Lullus, which
claimed that reason could know and prove all things, even the mysteries of Faith.
Under the authority of Averroes dangerous doctrines were propagated, especially
two very pernicious errors: first, that philosophy and religion being in different
regions, what is true in religion might be false in philosophy; secondly, that all
men have but one soul. Averroes was commonly styled "The Commentator", but
St. Thomas says he was "not so much a Peripatetic as a corruptor of Peripatetic
philosophy" (Opuse. de unit. intell.). Applying a principle of St. Augustine (see I,
Q. lxxxiv, a. 5), following in the footsteps of Alexander of Hales and Albertus
Magnus, St. Thomas resolved to take what was true from the "unjust
possessors", in order to press it into the service of revealed religion. Objections
to Aristotle would cease if the true Aristotle were made known; hence his first
care was to obtain a new translation of the works of the great philosopher.
Aristotle was to be purified; false commentators were to be refuted; the most
influential of these was Averroes, hence St. Thomas is continually rejecting his
false interpretations.
(2) Theology Systematized
The next step was to press reason into the service of the Faith, by putting
Christian doctrine into scientific form. Scholasticism does not consist, as some
persons imagine, in useless discussions and subtleties, but in this, that it
expresses sound doctrine in language which is accurate, clear, and concise. In
the Encyclical "Aeterni Patris" Leo XIII, citing the words of Sixtus V (Bull
"Triumphantis", 1588), declares that to the right use of philosophy we are
indebted for "those noble endowments which make Scholastic theology so
formidable to the enemies of truth", because "that ready coherence of cause and
effect, that order and array of a disciplined army in battle, those clear definitions
and distinctions, that strength of argument and those keen discussions by which
light is distinguished from darkness, the true from the false, expose and lay bare,
as it were, the falsehoods of heretics wrapped around by a cloud of subterfuges
and fallacies". When the great Scholastics had written, there was light where
there had been darkness, there was order where confusion had prevailed. The
work of St. Anselm and of Peter Lombard was perfected by the Scholastic
theologians. Since their days no substantial improvements have been made in
the plan and system of theology, although the field of apologetics has been
widened, and positive theology has become more important.
C. St. Thomas's Doctrine Followed
Within a short time after his death the writings of St. Thomas were universally
esteemed. The Dominicans naturally took the lead in following St. Thomas. The
general chapter held in Paris in 1279 pronounced severe penalties against all
who dared to speak irreverently (of him or of his writings. The chapters held in
Paris in 1286, at Bordeaux in 1287, and at Lucca in 1288 expressly required the
brethren to follow the doctrine of Thomas, who at that time had not been
canonized (Const. Ord. Praed., n. 1130). The University of Paris, on the occasion
of Thomas's death, sent an official letter of condolence to the general chapter of
the Dominicans, declaring that, equally with his brethren, the university
experienced sorrow at the loss of one who was their own by many titles (see text
of letter in Vaughan, op. cit., II, p. 82). In the Encyclical "Aeterni Patris" Leo XIII
mentions the Universities of Paris, Salamanca, Alcalá, Douai Toulouse, Louvain,
Padua, Bologna, Naples, Coimbra as "the homes of human wisdom where
Thomas reigned supreme, and the minds of all, of teachers as well as of taught,
rested in wonderful harmony under the shield and authority of the Angelic
Doctor". To the list may be added Lima and Manila, Fribourg and Washington.
Seminaries and colleges followed the lead of the universities. The "Summa"
gradually supplanted the "Sentences" as the textbook of theology. Minds were
formed in accordance with the principles of St. Thomas; he became the great
master, exercising a world-wide influence on the opinions of men and on their
writings; for even those who did not adopt all of his conclusions were obliged to
give due consideration to his opinions. It has been estimated that 6000
commentaries on St. Thomas's works have been written. Manuals of theology
and of philosophy, composed with the intention of imparting his teaching,
translations, and studies, or digests (études), of portions of his works have been
published in profusion during the last six hundred years and to-day his name is in
honour all over the world (see THOMISM). In every one of the general councils
held since his death St. Thomas has been singularly honoured. At the Council of
Lyons his book "Contra errores Graecorum" was used with telling effect against
the Greeks. In later disputes, before and during the Council of Florence, John of
Montenegro, the champion of Latin orthodoxy, found St. Thomas's works a
source of irrefragable arguments. The "Decretum pro Armenis" (Instruction for the
Armenians), issued by the authority of that council, is taken almost verbatim
from his treatise, "De fidei articulis et septem sacramentis" (see
Denzinger-Bannwart, n. 695). "In the Councils of Lyons, Vienne, Florence, and
the Vatican", writes Leo XIII (Encyclical "Aeterni Patris"), "one might almost say
that Thomas took part in and presided over the deliberations and decrees of the
Fathers contending against the errors of the Greeks, of heretics, and
Rationalists, with invincible force and with the happiest results. But the chief and
special glory of Thomas, one which he has shared with none of the Catholic
doctors, is that the Fathers of Trent made it part of the order of the conclave to
lay upon the altar, together with the code of Sacred Scripture and the decrees of
the Supreme Pontiffs, the Summa of Thomas Aquinas, whence to seek counsel,
reason, and inspiration. Greater influence than this no man could have. Before
this section is closed mention should be made of two books widely known and
highly esteemed, which were inspired by and drawn from the writings of St.
Thomas. The Catechism of the Council of Trent, composed by disciples of the
Angelic Doctor, is in reality a compendium of his theology, in convenient form for
the use of parish priests. Dante's "Divina Commedia" has been called "the
Summa of St. Thomas in verse", and commentators trace the great Florentine
poet's divisions and descriptions of the virtues and vices to the "Secunda
Secundae".
D. Appreciation of St. Thomas
(1) In the Church
The esteem in which he was held during his life has not been diminished, but
rather increased, in the course of the six centuries that have elapsed since his
death. The position which he occupies in the Church is well explained by that
great scholar Leo XIII, in the Encyclical "Aeterni Patris", recommending the study
of Scholastic philosophy: "It is known that nearly all the founders and framers of
laws of religious orders commanded their societies to study and religiously
adhere to the teachings of St. Thomas. . . To say nothing of the family of St.
Dominic, which rightly claims this great teacher for its own glory, the statutes of
the Benedictines, the Carmelites, the Augustinians, the Society of Jesus, and
many others, all testify that they are bound by this law." Amongst the "many
others" the Servites, the Passionists, the Barnabites, and the Sulpicians have
been devoted in an especial manner to the study of St. Thomas. The principal
ancient universities where St. Thomas ruled as the great master have been
enumerated above. The Paris doctors called him the morning star, the luminous
sun, the light of the whole Church. Stephen, Bishop of Paris, repressing those
who dared to attack the doctrine of "that most excellent Doctor, the blessed
Thomas", calls him "the great luminary of the Catholic Church, the precious
stone of the priesthood, the flower of doctors, and the bright mirror of the
University of Paris" (Drane, op. cit., p. 431). In the old Louvain University the
doctors were required to uncover and bow their heads when they pronounced the
name of Thomas (Goudin, op. cit., p. 21).
"The ecumenical councils, where blossoms the flower of all earthly wisdom, have
always been careful to hold Thomas Aquinas in singular honour" (Leo XIII in "Aet.
Patris"). This subject has been sufficiently treated above. The "Bullarium Ordinis
Praedicatorum", published in 1729-39, gives thirty-eight Bulls in which eighteen
sovereign pontiffs praised and recommended the doctrine of St. Thomas (see
also Vaughan, op. cit., II, c. ii; Berthier, op. cit., pp. 7 sqq.). These approbations
are recalled and renewed by Leo XIII, who lays special stress on "the crowning
testimony of Innocent VI: `His teaching above that of others, the canons alone
excepted, enjoys such an elegance of phraseology, a method of statement, a
truth of proposition, that those who hold it are never found swerving from the path
of truth, and he who dare assail it will always be suspected of error (ibid.). Leo
XIII surpassed his predecessors in admiration of St. Thomas, in whose works he
declared a remedy can be found for many evils that afflict society (see Berthier,
op. cit., introd.). The notable Encyclical Letters with which the name of that
illustrious pontiff will always be associated show how he had studied the works of
the Angelic Doctor. This is very noticeable in the letters on Christian marriage,
the Christian constitution of states, the condition of the working classes, and the
study of Holy Scripture. Pope Pius X, in several Letters, e.g. in the "Pascendi
Dominici Gregis" (Sept., 1907), has insisted on the observance of the
recommendations of Leo XIII concerning the study of St. Thomas. An attempt to
give names of Catholic writers who have expressed their appreciation of St.
Thomas and of his influence would be an impossible undertaking; for the list
would include nearly all who have written on philosophy or theology since the
thirteenth century, as well as hundreds of writers on other subjects.
Commendations and eulogies are found in the introductory chapters of all good
commentaries. An incomplete list of authors who have collected these
testimonies is given by Father Berthier (op. cit., p. 22). . . .
(2) Outside the Church
(a) Anti-Scholastics - Some persons have been and are still opposed to
everything that comes under the name of Scholasticism, which they bold to be
synonymous with subtleties and useless discussions. From the prologue to the
"Summa" it is clear that St. Thomas was opposed to all that was superfluous
and confusing in Scholastic studies. When people understand what true
Scholasticism means, their objections will cease.
(b) Heretics and Schismatics - "A last triumph was reserved for this
incomparable man - namely, to compel the homage, praise, and admiration of
even the very enemies of the Catholic name" (Leo XIII, ibid.). St. Thomas's
orthodoxy drew upon him the hatred of all Greeks who were opposed to union
with Rome. The united Greeks, however, admire St. Thomas and study his works
(see above Translations of the "Summa"). The leaders of the sixteenth-century
revolt honoured St. Thomas by attacking him, Luther being particularly violent in
his coarse invectives against the great doctor. Citing Bucer's wild boast, "Take
away Thomas and I will destroy the Church", Leo XIII (ibid.) remarks, "The hope
was vain, but the testimony has its value". Calo, Tocco, and other biographers
relate that St. Thomas, travelling from Rome to Naples, converted two celebrated
Jewish rabbis, whom he met at the country house of Cardinal Richard (Prümmer,
op. cit., p. 33; Vaughan, op. cit., I, p. 795). Rabbi Paul of Burgos, in the fifteenth
century, was converted by reading the works of St. Thomas. Theobald Thamer, a
disciple of Melancthon, abjured his heresy after he had read the "Summa", which
he intended to refute. The Calvinist Duperron was converted in the same way,
subsequently becoming Archbishop of Sens and a cardinal (see Conway, O.P.,
op. cit., p. 96). After the bitterness of the first period of Protestantism had
passed away, Protestants saw the necessity of retaining many parts of Catholic
philosophy and theology, and those who came to know St. Thomas were
compelled to admire him. Ueberweg says "He brought the Scholastic philosophy
to its highest stage of development, by effecting the most perfect
accommodation that was possible of the Aristotelian philosophy to ecclesiastical
orthodoxy" (op. cit., p. 440). R. Seeberg in the "New Schaff-Herzog Religious
Encyclopedia" (New York, 1911) devotes ten columns to St. Thomas, and says
that "at all points he succeeded in upholding the church doctrine as credible and
reasonable" (XI, p. 427). For many years, especially since the days of Pusey and
Newman, St. Thomas has been in high repute at Oxford. Recently the "Summa
contra gentiles" was placed on the list of subjects which a candidate may offer in
the final honour schools of Litterae Humaniores at that university (cf. Walsh, op.
cit., c. xvii). For several years Father De Groot, O.P., has been the professor of
Scholastic philosophy in the University of Amsterdam, and courses in Scholastic
philosophy have been established in some of the leading non-Catholic
universities of the United States. Anglicans have a deep admiration for St.
Thomas. Alfred Mortimer, in the chapter "The Study of Theology" of his work
entitled "Catholic Faith and Practice" (2 vols., New York, 1909), regretting that
"the English priest has ordinarily no scientific acquaintance with the Queen of
Sciences", and proposing a remedy, says, "The simplest and most perfect
sketch of universal theology is to be found in the Summa of St. Thomas" (vol. II,
pp. 454, 465).
V. ST. THOMAS AND MODERN THOUGHT
In the Syllabus of 1864 Pius IX condemned a proposition in which it was stated
that the method and principles of the ancient Scholastic doctors were not suited
to the needs of our times and the progress of science (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
1713). In the Encyclical "Aeterni Patris" Leo XIII points out the benefits to be
derived from "a practical reform of philosophy by restoring the renowned teaching
of St. Thomas Aquinas". He exhorts the bishops to "restore the golden wisdom
of Thomas and to spread it far and wide for the defence and beauty of the
Catholic Faith, for the good of society, and for the advantage of all the sciences".
In the pages of the Encyclical immediately preceding these words he explains
why the teaching of St. Thomas would produce such most desirable results: St.
Thomas is the great master to explain and defend the Faith, for his is "the solid
doctrine of the Fathers and the Scholastics, who so clearly and forcibly
demonstrate the firm foundations of the Faith, its Divine origin, its certain truth,
the arguments that sustain it, the benefits it has conferred on the human race,
and its perfect accord with reason, in a manner to satisfy completely minds open
to persuasion, however unwilling and repugnant". The career of St. Thomas would
in itself have justified Leo XIII in assuring men of the nineteenth century that the
Catholic Church was not opposed to the right use of reason. The sociological
aspects of St. Thomas are also pointed out: "The teachings of Thomas on the
true meaning of liberty, which at this time is running into license, on the Divine
origin of all authority, on laws and their force, on the paternal and just rule of
princes, on obedience to the highest powers, on mutual charity one towards
another - on all of these and kindred subjects, have very great and invincible
force to overturn those principles of the new order which are well known to be
dangerous to the peaceful order of things and to public safety" (ibid.). The evils
affecting modern society had been pointed out by the pope in the Letter
"Inscrutabili" of 21 April, 1878, and in the one on Socialism, Communism, and
Nihilism ("The Great Encyclicals of Leo XIII", pp. 9 sqq.; 22 sqq.). How the
principles of the Angelic Doctor will furnish a remedy for these evils is explained
here in a general way, more particularly in the Letters on the Christian
constitution of states, human liberty, the chief duties of Christians as citizens,
and on the conditions of the working classes (ibid., pp. 107, 135, 180, 208).
It is in relation to the sciences that some persons doubt the availability of St.
Thomas's writings; and the doubters are thinking of the physical and
experimental sciences, for in metaphysics the scholastics are admitted to be
masters. Leo XIII calls attention to the following truths: (a) The Scholastics were
not opposed to investigation. Holding as a principle in anthropology "that the
human intelligence is only led to the knowledge of things without body and
matter by things sensible, they well understood that nothing was of greater use
to the philosopher than diligently to search into the mysteries of nature, and to
be earnest and constant in the study of physical things" (ibid., p. 55). This
principle was reduced to practice: St. Thomas, St. Albertus Magnus, Roger
Bacon, and others "gave large attention to the knowledge of natural things" (ibid.,
p. 56). (b) Investigation alone is not sufficient for true science. "When facts have
been established, it is necessary to rise and apply ourselves to the study of the
nature of corporeal things, to inquire into the laws which govern them and the
principles whence their order and varied unity and mutual attraction in diversity
arise" (p. 55). Will the scientists of to-day pretend to be better reasoners than St.
Thomas, or more powerful in synthesis? It is the method and the principles of St.
Thomas that Leo XIII recommends: "If anything is taken up with too great subtlety
by the scholastic doctors, or too carelessly stated; if there be anything that ill
agrees with the discoveries of a later age or, in a word, is improbable in any way,
it does not enter into our mind to propose that for imitation to our age" (p. 56).
Just as St. Thomas, in his day, saw a movement towards Aristotle and
philosophical studies which could not be checked, but could be guided in the
right direction and made to serve the cause of truth, so also, Leo XIII, seeing in
the world of his time a spirit of study and investigation which might be productive
of evil or of good, had no desire to check it, but resolved to propose a moderator
and master who could guide it in the paths of truth.
No better guide could have been chosen than the clear-minded, analytic,
synthetic, and sympathetic Thomas Aquinas. His extraordinary patience and
fairness in dealing with erring philosophers, his approbation of all that was true in
their writings, his gentleness in condemning what was false, his
clear-sightedness in pointing out the direction to true knowledge in all its
branches, his aptness and accuracy in expressing the truth - these qualities
mark him as a great master not only for the thirteenth century, but for all times. If
any persons are inclined to consider him too subtle, it is because they do not
know how clear, concise, and simple are his definitions and divisions. His two
summae are masterpieces of pedagogy, and mark him as the greatest of human
teachers. Moreover, he dealt with errors similar to many which go under the
name of philosophy or science in our days. The Rationalism of Abelard and
others called forth St. Thomas's luminous and everlasting principles on the true
relations of faith and reason. Ontologism was solidly refuted by St. Thomas
nearly six centuries before the days of Malebranche, Gioberti, and Ubaghs (see
"Sum. theol.", I, Q. lxxxiv, a. 5). The true doctrine on first principles and on
universals, given by him and by the other great Scholastics, is the best refutation
of Kant's criticism of metaphysical ideas (see, e.g., "Post. Analyt.", I, lect. xix;
"De ente et essentia", c. iv; "Sum. theol.", I, Q. xvii, a. 3, corp. and ad 2um; Q.
lxxix, a. 3; Q. lxxxiv, a. 5, a. 6, corp. and ad 1um, Q. lxxxv, a. 2, ad 2um, a. 3,
ad 1um, ad 4um. Cf. index to "Summa": "Veritas", "Principium", "Universale").
Modern psychological Pantheism does not differ substantially from the theory of
one soul for all men asserted by Averroes (see "De unit. intell." and "Sum.
theol.", I, Q. lxxvi, a. 2; Q. lxxix, a.5). The Modernistic error, which distinguishes
the Christ of faith from the Christ of history, had as its forerunner the Averroistic
principle that a thing might be true in philosophy and false in religion.
In the Encyclical "Providentissimus Deus" (18 Nov., 1893) Leo XIII draws from St.
Thomas's writings the principles and wise rules which should govern scientific
criticism of the Sacred Books. From the same source recent writers have drawn
principles which are most helpful in the solution of questions pertaining to
Spiritism and Hypnotism. Are we to conclude, then, that St. Thomas's works, as
he left them, furnish sufficient instruction for scientists, philosophers, and
theologians of our times? By no means. Vetera novis augere et perficere - "To
strengthen and complete the old by aid of the new " - is the motto of the
restoration proposed by Leo XIII. Were St. Thomas living to-day he would gladly
adopt and use all the facts made known by recent scientific and historical
investigations, but he would carefully weigh all evidence offered in favour of the
facts. Positive theology is more necessary in our days than it was in the
thirteenth century. Leo XIII calls attention to its necessity in his Encyclical, and
his admonition is renewed by Pius X in his Letter on Modernism. But both
pontiffs declare that positive theology must not be extolled to the detriment of
Scholastic theology. In the Encyclical "Pascendi", prescribing remedies against
Modernism, Pius X, following in this his illustrious predecessor, gives the first
place to "Scholastic philosophy, especially as it was taught by Thomas
Aquinas", St. Thomas is still "The Angel of the Schools".
D. J. Kennedy
Transcribed by Kevin Cawley
The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume XIV
Copyright © 1912 by Robert Appleton Company
Online Edition Copyright © 1999 by Kevin Knight
Nihil Obstat, July 1, 1912. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor
Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York
The Catholic Encyclopedia: NewAdvent.org