II. WRITINGS
A. General Remarks
Although St. Thomas lived less than fifty years, he composed more than sixty
works, some of them brief, some very lengthy. This does not necessarily mean
that every word in the authentic works was written by his hand; he was assisted
by secretaries, and biographers assure us that he could dictate to several
scribes at the same time. Other works, some of which were composed by his
disciples, have been falsely attributed to him.
In the "Scriptores Ordinis Praedicatorum" (Paris 1719) Fr. Echard devotes
eighty-six folio pages to St. Thomas's works, the different editions and
translations (I, pp. 282-348). Touron (op. cit., pp. 69 sqq.) says that manuscript
copies were found in nearly all the libraries of Europe, and that, after the invention
of printing, copies were multiplied rapidly in Germany, Italy, and France, portions
of the "Summa theologica" being one of the first important works printed. Peter
Schoeffer, a printer of Mainz, published the "Secunda Secundae" in 1467. This is
the first known printed copy of any work of St. Thomas. The first complete edition
of the "Summa" was printed at Basle, in 1485. Many other editions of this and of
other works were published in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
especially at Venice and at Lyons. The principal editions of all the work (Opera
Omnia) were published as follows: Rome, 1570; Venice, 1594, 1612, 1745;
Antwerp, 1612; Paris, 1660, 1871-80 (Vives); Parma, 1852-73; Rome, 1882 (the
Leonine). The Roman edition of 1570, called "the Piana", because edited by
order of St. Pius V, was the standard for many years. Besides a carefully revised
text it contained the commentaries of Cardinal Cajetan and the valuable "Tabula
Aurea" of Peter of Bergamo. The Venetian edition of 1612 was highly prized
because the text was accompanied by the Cajetan-Porrecta commentaries . . . .
The Leonine edition, begun under the patronage of Leo XIII, now continued under
the master general of the Dominicans, undoubtedly will be the most perfect of all.
Critical dissertations on each work will be given, the text will be carefully revised,
and all references will be verified. By direction of Leo XIII (Motu Proprio, 18 Jan.,
1880) the "Summa contra gentiles" will be published with the commentaries of
Sylvester Ferrariensis, whilst the commentaries of Cajetan go with the "Summa
theologica".
The latter has been published, being vols. IV-XII of the edition (last in 1906). St.
Thomas's works may be classified as philosophical, theological, scriptural, and
apologetic, or controversial. The division, however, cannot always be rigidly
maintained. The "Summa theologica", e.g., contains much that is philosophical,
whilst the "Summa contra gentiles" is principally, but not exclusively,
philosophical and apologetic. His philosophical works are chiefly commentaries
on Aristotle, and his first important theological writings were commentaries on
Peter Lombard's four books of "Sentences"; but he does not slavishly follow
either the Philosopher or the Master of the Sentences (on opinions of the
Lombard rejected by theologians, see Migne, 1841, edition of the "Summa" I, p.
451).
B. His Principal Works in Detail
Amongst the works wherein St. Thomas's own mind and method are shown, the
following deserve special mention:
(1) "Quaestiones disputatae" (Disputed Questions) - These were more
complete treatises on subjects that had not been fully elucidated in the lecture
halls, or concerning which the professor's opinion had been sought. They are very
valuable, because in them the author, free from limitations as to time or space,
freely expresses his mind and gives all arguments for or against the opinions
adopted. These treatises, containing the questions "De potentia", "De malo", "De
spirit. creaturis", "De anima", "De unione Verbi Incarnati", "De virt. in communi",
"De caritate", "De corr. fraterna", "De spe", "De virt. cardinal.", "De veritate", were
often reprinted, e.g. recently by the Association of St. Paul (2 vols., Paris and
Fribourg, Switzerland, 1883).
(2) "Quodlibeta" (may be rendered "Various Subjects", or "Free Discussions") -
They present questions or arguments proposed and answers given in or outside
the lecture halls, chiefly in the more formal scholastic exercises, termed circuli,
conclusiones, or determinationes, which were held once or twice a year.
(3) "De unitate intellectus contra Averroistas" - This opusculum refuted a very
dangerous and widespread error, viz., that there was but one soul for all men, a
theory which did away wth individual liberty and responsibility. (See AVERROES)
(4) "Commentaria in Libros Sententiarum" (mentioned above) - This with the
following work are the immediate forerunners of the "Summa theologica".
(5) "Summa de veritate catholicae fidei contra gentiles" (Treatise on the Truth of
the Catholic Faith, against Unbelievers) - This work, written at Rome, 1261-64,
was composed at the request of St. Raymond of Pennafort, who desired to have
a philosophical exposition and defence of the Christian Faith, to be used against
the Jews and Moors in Spain. It is a perfect model of patient and sound
apologetics, showing that no demonstrated truth (science) is opposed to revealed
truth (faith). The best recent editions are those of Rome, 1878 (by Uccelli), of
Paris and Fribourg, Switzerland, 1882, and of Rome, 1894. It has been translated
into many languages. It is divided into four books: I. Of God as He is in Himself;
II. Of God the Origin of Creatures; III. Of God the End of Creatures; IV. Of God in
His Revelation. It is worthy of remark that the Fathers of the Vatican Council,
treating the necessity of revelation (Coast. "Dei Filius", c. 2), employed almost
the very words used by St. Thomas in treating that subject in this work (I, cc. iv,
V), and in the "Summa theologica" (I, Q. i, a. 1).
(6) Three works written by order of Urban IV -
The "Opusculum contra errores Graecorum" refuted the errors of the
Greeks on doctrines in dispute between them and the Roman Church,
viz., the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, the
primacy of the Roman pontiff, the Holy Eucharist, and purgatory. It was
used against the Greeks with telling effect in the Council of Lyons (1274)
and in the Councll of Florence (1493). In the range of human reasonings
on deep subjects there can be found nothing to surpass the sublimity and
depth of the argument adduced by St. Thomas to prove that the Holy
Ghost proceeds from the Father and the Son (cf. Summa theol., I, Q.
xxxvi, a. 2); but it must be borne in mind that our Faith is not based on
that argument alone.
"Officium de festo Cor poris Christi". Mandonnet (Ecrits, p. 127) declares
that it is now established beyond doubt that St. Thomas is the author of
the beautiful Office of Corpus Christi, in which solid doctrine, tender piety,
and enlightening Scriptural citations are combined, and expressed in
language remarkably accurate, beautifu] chaste, and poetic. Here we find
the well-known hymns, "Sacris Solemniis", "Pange Lingua" (concluding in
the "Tantum Ergo"), "Verbum Super num" (concluding with the "O
Salutaris Hostia") and, in the Mass, the beautiful sequence "Lauda Sion".
In the responses of the office, St. Thomas places side by side words of
the New Testament affirming the real presence of Christ in the Blessed
Sacrament and texts from the Old Testament referring to the types and
figures of the Eucharist. Santeuil, a poet of the seventeenth century, said
he would give all the verses he had written for the one stanza of the
"Verbum Supernum": "Se nascens dedit socium, convescens in edulium:
Se moriens in pretium, Se regnans dat in praemium" - "In birth, man's
fellow-man was He, His meat, while sitting at the Board: He died his
Ransomer to be, He reigns to be his Great Reward" (tr. by Marquis of
Bute). Perhaps the gem of the whole office is the antiphon "O Sacrum
Convivium (cf. Conway, "St. Thomas Aquinas", London and New York,
1911, p. 61).
The "Catena Aurea' though not as original as his other writings, furnishes
a striking proof of St. Thomas's prodigious memory and manifests an
intimate acquaintance with the Fathers of the Church. The work contains
a series of passages selected from the writings of the various Fathers,
arranged in such order that the texts cited form a running commentary on
the Gospels. The commentary on St. Matthew was dedicated to Urban IV.
An English translation of the "Catena Aurea was edited by John Henry
Newman (4 vols., Oxford 1841-1845; see Vaughan, op. cit., vol.II,) pp. 529
sqq..
(7) The "Summa theologica" - This work immortalized St. Thomas. The author
himself modestly considered it simply a manual of Christian doctrine for the use
of students. In reality it is a complete scientifically arranged exposition of
theology and at the same time a summary of Christian philosophy . . . . In the
brief prologue St. Thomas first calls attention to the difficulties experienced by
students of sacred doctrine in his day, the causes assigned being: the
multiplication of useless questions, articles, and arguments; the lack of scientific
order; frequent repetitions, "which beget disgust and confusion in the minds of
learners". Then he adds: "Wishing to avoid these and similar drawbacks, we
shall endeavour, confiding in the Divine assistance, to treat of these things that
pertain to sacred doctrine with brevity and clearness, in so far as the subject to
he treated will permit." In the introductory question, "On Sacred Doctrine", he
proves that, besides the knowledge which reason affords, Revelation also is
necessary for salvation first, because without it men could not know the
supenatural end to which they must tend by their voluntary acts; secondly,
because, without Revelation, even the truths concerning God which could be
proved by reason would be known "only by a few, after a lot time, and with the
admixture of many errors". When revealed truths have been accepted, the mind
of man proceeds to explain them and to draw conclusions from them. Hence
results theology, which is a science, because it proceeds from principles that are
certain (a. 2). The object, or subject, of this science is God; other things are
treated in it only in so far as they relate to God (a. 7). Reason is used in theology
not to prove the truths of faith, which are accepted on the authority of God, but to
defend, explain, and develop the doctrines revealed (a. 8). He thus announces
the division of the "Summa": "Since the chief aim of this sacred science is to
give the knowledge of God, not only as He is in Himself, but also as He is the
Beginning of all things, and the End of all, especially of rational creatures, we
shall treat first of God; secondly, of the rational creature's advance towards God
(de motu creaturae rationalis in Deum); thirdly, of Christ, Who, as Man, is the
way by which we tend to God." God in Himself, and as He is the Creator; God as
the End of all things, especially of man; God as the Redeemer - these are the
leading ideas, the great headings, under which all that pertains to theology is
contained.
(a) Sub-divisions
The First Part is divided into three tracts: [alpha] On those things which pertain
to the Essence of God; [beta] On the distinction of Persons in God (the mystery
of the Trinity); [gamma] On the production of creatures by God and on the
creatures produced.
The Second Part, On God as He is in the End of man, is sometimes called the
Moral Theology of St. Thomas, i.e., his treatise on the end of man and on human
acts. It is subdivided into two parts, known as the First Section of the Second
(I-II, or la 2ae) and the Second of the Second (II-II, or 2a 2ae).
The First of the Second. The first five questions are devoted to proving that
man's last end, his beatitude, consists in the possession of God. Man
attains to that end or deviates from it by human acts, i.e. by free,
deliherate acts. Of human acts he treats, first, in general (in all but the
first five questions of the I-II), secondly, in particular (in the whole of the
II-II). The treatise on human acts in general is divided into two parts: the
first, on human acts in themselves; the other, on the principles or causes,
extrinsic or intrinsic, of those acts. In these tracts and in the Second of
the Second, St. Thomas, following Aristotle, gives a perfect description
and a wonderfully keen analysis of the movements of man's mind and
heart.
The Second of the Second considers human acts, i.e., the virtues and
vices, in particular. In it St. Thomas treats, first, of those things that
pertain to all men, no matter what may be their station in life, and,
secondly, of those things that pertain to some men only. Things that
pertain to all men are reduced to seven headings: Faith, Hope, and
Charity; Prudence, Justice, Fortitude, and Temperance. Under each title,
in order to avoid repetitions, St. Thomas treats not only of the virtue itself,
but also of the vices opposed to it, of the commandment to practise it,
and of the gift of the Holy Ghost which corresponds to it. Things pertaining
to some men only are reduced to three headings: the graces freely given
(gratia gratis datae) to certain individuals for the good of the Church, such
as the gifts of tongues, of prophecy, of miracles; the active and the
contemplative life; the particular states of life, and duties of those who are
in different states, especially bishops and religious.
The Third Part treats of Christ and of the benefits which He has conferred upon
man, hence three tracts: On the Incarnation, and on what the Saviour did and
suffered; On the Sacraments, which were instituted by Christ, and have their
efficacy from His merits and sufferings; On Eternal Life, i.e., on the end of the
world, the resurrection of bodies, judgment, the punishment of the wicked, the
happiness of the just who, through Christ, attain to eternal life in heaven. Eight
years were given to the composition of this work, which was begun at Rome,
where the First Part and the First of the Second were written (1265-69). The
Second of the Second, begun in Rome, was completed in Paris (1271). In 1272
St. Thomas went to Naples, where the Third Part was written, down to the
ninetieth question of the tract On Penance (see Leonine edition, I, p. xlii). The
work has been completed by the addition of a supplement, drawn from other
writings of St. Thomas, attributed by some to Peter of Auvergne, by others to
Henry of Gorkum. These attributions are rejected by the editors of the Leonine
edition (XI, pp. viii, xiv, xviii). Mandonnet (op. cit., 153) inclines to the very
probable opinion that it was compiled by Father Reginald de Piperno, the saint's
faithful companion and secretary. The entire "Summa" contains 38 Treatises, 612
Questions, subdivided into 3120 articles, in which about 10,000 objections are
proposed and answered. So admirably is the promised order preserved that, by
reference to the beginning of the Tracts and Questions, one can see at a glance
what place it occupies in the general plan, which embraces all that can be known
through theology of God, of man, and of their mutual relations . . . "The whole
Summa is arranged on a uniform plan. Every subject is introduced as a question,
and divided into articles. . . . Each article has also a uniform disposition of parts.
The topic is introduced as an inquiry for discussion, under the term Utrum,
whether - e.g. Utrum Deus sit? The objections against the proposed thesis are
then stated. These are generally three or four in number, but sometimes extend
to seven or more. The conclusion adopted is then introduced by the words,
Respondeo dicendum. At the end of the thesis expounded the objections are
answered, under the forms, ad primum, ad secundum, etc." . . . . The "Summa"
is Christian doctrine in scientific form; it is human reason rendering its highest
service in defence and explanation of the truths of the Christian religion. It is the
answer of the matured and saintly doctor to the question of his youth: What is
God? Revelation, made known in the Scriptures and by tradition; reason and its
best results; soundness and fulness of doctrine, order, conciseness and
clearness of expression, effacement of self, the love of truth alone, hence a
remarkable fairness towards adversaries and calmness in combating their errors;
soberness and soundness of judgment, together with a charmingly tender and
enlightened piety - these are all found in this "Summa" more than in his other
writings, more than in the writings of his contemporaries, for "among the
scholastic doctors, the chief and master of all, towers Thomas Aquinas, who, as
Cajetan observes (In 2am 2ae, Q. 148, a. 4) 'because he most venerated the
ancient doctors of the Church in a certain way seems to have inherited the
intellect of all'" (Encyclical, "Aeterni Patris", of Leo XIII).
(b) Editions and Translations
It is impossible to mention the various editions of the "Summa", which has been
in constant use for more than seven hundred years. Very few books have been
so often republished. The first complete edition, printed at Basle in 1485, was
soon followed by others, e.g., at Venice in 1505, 1509, 1588, 1594; at Lyons in
1520, 1541, 1547, 1548, 1581, 1588, 1624,1655; at Antwerp in 1575. These are
enumerated by Touron (op. cit., p. 692), who says that about the same time
other editions were published at Rome, Antwerp, Rouen, Paris, Douai, Cologne,
Amsterdam, Bologna, etc. The editors of the Leonine edition deem worthy of
mention those published at Paris in 1617, 1638, and 1648, at Lyons in 1663,
1677, and 1686, and a Roman edition of 1773 (IV, pp. xi, xii). Of all old editions
they consider the most accurate two published at Padua, one in 1698, the other
in 1712, and the Venice edition of 1755. Of recent editions the best are the -
following: the Leonine; the Migne editions (Paris 1841, 1877); the first volume of
the 1841 edition containing the "Libri quatuor sententiarum" of Peter Lombard;
the very practical Faucher edition (5 vols. small quarto, Paris, 1887), dedicated to
Cardinal Pecci, enriched with valuable notes; a Roman edition of 1894. The
"Summa" has been translated into many modern languages as well.
C. Method and Style of St. Thomas
It is not possible to characterize the method of St. Thomas by one word, unless
it can be called eclectic. It is Aristotelean, Platonic, and Socratic; it is inductive
and deductive; it is analytic and synthetic. He chose the best that could he found
in those who preceded him, carefully sifting the chaff from the wheat, approving
what was true, rejecting the false. His powers of synthesis were extraordinary.
No writer surpassed him in the faculty of expressing in a few well-chosen words
the truth gathered from a multitude of varying and conflicting opinions; and in
almost every instance the student sees, the truth and is perfectly satisfied with
St. Thomas's summary and statement. Not that he would have students swear
by the words of a master. In philosophy, he says, arguments from authority are
of secondary importance; philosophy does not consist in knowing what men have
said, but in knowing the truth (In I lib. de Coelo, lect. xxii; II Sent., D. xiv, a. 2, ad
lum). He assigns its proper place to reason used in theology (see below:
Influence of St. Thomas), but he keeps it within its own sphere. Against the
Traditionalists the Holy See has declared that the method used by St. Thomas
and St. Bonaventure does not lead to Rationalism (Denzinger-Bannwart, n.
1652). Not so bold or original in investigating nature as were Albertus Magnus
and Roger Bacon, he was, nevertheless, abreast of his time in science, and
many of his opinions are of scientific value in the twentieth century. Take, for
instance, the following: "In the same plant there is the two-fold virtue, active and
passive, though sometimes the active is found in one and the passive in another,
so that one plant is said to be masculine and the other feminine" (3 Sent., D. III,
Q. ii, a 1).
The style of St. Thomas is a medium between the rough expressiveness of some
Scholastics and the fastidious elegance of John of Salisbury; it is remarkable for
accuracy, brevity, and completeness. Pope Innocent VI (quoted in the
Encyclical, "Aeterni Patris", of Leo XIII) declared that, with the exception of the
canonical writings, the works of St. Thomas surpass all others in "accuracy of
expression and truth of statement" (habet proprietatem verborum, modum
dicendorum, veritatem sententiarum). Great orators, such as Bossuet,
Lacordaire, Monsabre, have studied his style, and have been influenced by it, but
they could not reproduce it. The same is true of theological writers. Cajetan knew
St. Thomas's style better than any of his disciples, but Cajetan is beneath his
great master in clearness and accuracy of expression, in soberness and solidity
of judgment. St. Thomas did not attain to this perfection without an effort. He was
a singularly blessed genius, but he was also an indefatigable worker, and by
continued application he reached that stage of perfection in the art of writing
where the art disappears. "The author's manuscript of the Summa Contra
Gentiles is still in great part extant. It is now in the Vatican Library. The
manuscript consists of strips of parchment, of various shades of colour,
contained in an old parchment cover to which they were originally stitched. The
writing is in double column, and difficult to decipher, abounding in abbreviations,
often passing into a kind of shorthand. Throughout many passages a line is
drawn in sign of erasure" (Rickaby, Op. cit., preface: see Ucelli ed., "Sum. coat.
gent.", Rome, 1878).